Scottish Longitudinal Study
Development & Support Unit

Journal Articles

Long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality in Scotland: A register-based individual-level longitudinal study

Abed Al Ahad, M., Demsar, U., Sullivan, F., & Kulu, H. (2023) Environmental Research 238, Part 2. Science Direct, Elsevier 2 October 2023. ISSN: 0013-9351 [SLS]

Other information: Air pollution is associated with several adverse health outcomes. However, heterogeneity in the size of effect estimates between cohort studies for long-term exposures exist and pollutants like SO2 and mental/behavioural health outcomes are little studied. This study examines the association between long-term exposure to multiple ambient air pollutants and all-cause and cause-specific mortality from both physical and mental illnesses. Methods We used individual-level administrative data from the Scottish-Longitudinal-Study (SLS) on 202,237 individuals aged 17 and older, followed between 2002 and 2017. The SLS dataset was linked to annual concentrations of NO2, SO2, and particulate-matter (PM10, PM2.5) pollution at 1 km2 spatial resolution using the individuals’ residential postcode. We applied survival analysis to assess the association between air pollution and all-cause, cardiovascular, respiratory, cancer, mental/behavioural disorders/suicides, and other-causes mortality. Results Higher all-cause mortality was associated with increasing concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and SO2 pollutants. NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 were also associated with cardiovascular, respiratory, cancer and other-causes mortality. For example, the mortality hazard from respiratory diseases was 1.062 (95%CI = 1.028–1.096), 1.025 (95%CI = 1.005–1.045), and 1.013 (95%CI = 1.007–1.020) per 1 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 pollutants, respectively. In contrast, mortality from mental and behavioural disorders was associated with 1 μg/m3 higher exposure to SO2 pollutant (HR = 1.042; 95%CI = 1.015–1.069). Conclusion This study revealed an association between long-term (16-years) exposure to ambient air pollution and all-cause and cause-specific mortality. The results suggest that policies and interventions to enhance air quality would reduce the mortality hazard from cardio-respiratory, cancer, and mental/behavioural disorders in the long-term. Keywords: Air pollution; Mortality; Cardio-respiratory; Mental disorders; Scottish longitudinal study. doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.117223.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.117223.
Output from project: 2019_006

School absenteeism and academic achievement: does the reason for absence matter?

Klein, M., Sosu, E., Dare, S. (2022) AERA Open 8 13 February 2022. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23328584211071115
Output from project: 2018_007

School Absenteeism and Academic Achievement: Does the Reason for Absence Matter?

Klein, M., Sosu, E., Dare, S. (2022) AERA Open 8 (January 2022), Sage Journals 13 February 2022. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1177/2F23328584211071115
Output from project: 2018_007

Social class and sex differences in higher-education attainment among adults in Scotland since the 1960s

Paterson, L. (2022) Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 13 (1), 7-48 Bristol University Press, 1 January 2022. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1332/175795921X16140986832835
Output from project: 2016_005

Understanding multimorbidity trajectories in Scotland: an application of sequence analysis

Cezard, G., Sullivan, F., Keenan, K. (2022) MedRxiv, BMJ Yale, 1 March 2022. Preprint [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.03.01.22271715
Output from project: 2018_012

The Causal Health Effects of Education – Who Benefits and When?

Gehrsitz, M (2021) Internal publication for University of Strathclyde [SLS]

Output from project: 2017_004

Longterm Neighbourhood Effects of Religious Preferences

Chuhang Yin Geissler (2021) Annals of Economics & Statistics No. 142 (June 2021) 251-282 GENES, ADRES 1 June 2021. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.15609/annaeconstat2009.142.0251
Output from project: 2018_010

a data linkage study of the effects of the Great Recession and austerity on anti-depressant prescription usage in Scotland

Cherrie, M., Curtis, S., Baranyi, G., McTaggert, S., Cunningham, N., Licence, K., Dibben, C., Bambra, C., Pearce, J. (2021) European Journal of Public Health Vol 31, (2, ), Pages 297–303, Oxford Academic/EUPHA, 7 February 2021. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa253
Output from project: 2015_015

Social Class and Sex Differences in Higher Education Attainment among Adults in Scotland since the 1960s

Paterson, L. (2021) Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, pages1-42, Bristol University Press, 9 April 2021. ISSN: 1757-9597 [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1332/175795921X16140986832835
Output from project: 2016_005

Local crime rates and prescriptions for psychotropic medications between 2009 and 2014: A longitudinal data-linkage study of 130 000 Scottish adults

Baranyi, G', Cherrie, M., Curtis, S., Dibben, C., Pearce, J. (2020) American Journal of Preventive Medicine 58 (5), 638-647 AJPM 11 March 2020. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.12.022
Output from project: 2015_015

Changing levels of local crime and mental health in Scotland: A natural experiment utilising self-reported and service use data in Scotland

Baranyi, G, Cherrie, M., Curtis, S., Dibben, C., Pearce, J. (2020) Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (BMJ) 5 June 2020. [SLS]

Other information:

Abstract

Background This study contributes robust evidence on the association between mental health and local crime rates by showing how changing exposure to small area-level crime relates to self-reported and administrative data on mental health.

Methods The study sample comprised 112 251 adults aged 16–60 years, drawn from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, a 5.3% representative sample of Scottish population followed across censuses. Outcomes were individual mental health indicators: self-reported mental illness from the 2011 Census and linked administrative data on antidepressants and antipsychotics prescribed through primary care providers in the National Health Service in 2010/2012. Crime rates at data zone level (500–1000 persons) were matched to the participants’ main place of residence, as defined by general practitioner patient registration duration during 2004/2006, 2007/2009 and 2010/12. Average neighbourhood crime exposure and change in area crime were computed. Covariate-adjusted logistic regressions were conducted, stratified by moving status.

Results In addition to average crime exposure during follow-up, recent increases in crime (2007/2009–2010/2012) were associated with a higher risk of self-reported mental illness, among ‘stayers’ aged 16–30 years (OR=1.11; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.22), and among ‘movers’ aged 31–45 years (OR=1.07; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.13). Prescribed medications reinforced these findings; worsening crime rates were linked with antidepressant prescriptions among young stayers (OR=1.09; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.14) and with antipsychotic prescriptions among younger middle-aged movers (OR=1.11; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.23).

Conclusion Changing neighbourhood crime exposure is related to individual mental health, but associations differ by psychiatric conditions, age and moving status. Crime reduction and prevention, especially in communities with rising crime rates, may benefit public mental health.

doi: 10.1136/jech-2020-213837

Available online: https://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2020/06/04/jech-2020-213837.info
Output from project: 2015_015

Social Class Inequalities in School Qualifications

Gayle, V., Playford, C., Connelly, R. (2020) Regional Studies Association 30 September 2020. [SLS]

Other information:

ABSTRACT

The qualifications that British children gain at school are strong determinants of their futures in both education and the labour market. Studies of the relationship between parental social class and children’s outcomes in school qualifications report the general finding that pupils from families in less advantaged social classes on average have poorer outcomes. This paper investigates social class inequalities in Scottish school qualifications. Scottish data provide an interesting case study because Scotland has its own set of school qualifications and has a widespread system of comprehensive secondary schools that do not select children through academic testing. This paper is innovative because it analyses new linked administrative data on individual pupils from the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) with parental information from the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS). Standard Grades were the main qualifications undertaken by Scottish pupils at the end of compulsory schooling. We present multivariate analysis of pupils’ overall school Standard Grade scores. We find an overall negative relationship between parental social class and children’s outcomes in Scottish school qualifications. Pupils from families in less advantaged social classes, on average, have lower overall Standard Grade scores. A more nuanced finding that emerges from the analyses is that there is a cleft between the Standard Grade scores of children from families in the white and the blue collar classes. We conjecture that the complexity of parents jobs, especially in the more advantaged social classes, fosters forms of family and home life that are conducive to children having more favourable outcomes in school qualifications. Standard Grades have been replaced by the ‘National’ qualifications framework. Changes in the structure and content of the curriculum and assessment could affect the pattern of parental social class inequalities. Further detailed empirical analyses of social class inequalities in outcomes in Scottish school qualifications is therefore imperative.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2020.1823013
Output from project: 2014_005

Socio‐economic inequalities in rates of amenable mortality in Scotland: Analyses of the fundamental causes using the Scottish Longitudinal Study, 1991–2010

McMinn, MA., Seaman, R., Dundas, R., Pell, JP., Leyland, AH. (2020) Population, Place and Space, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 22 September 2020. [SLS]

Other information:

Abstract

Socio‐economic inequalities in amenable mortality rates are increasing across Europe, which is an affront to universal healthcare systems where the numbers of, and inequalities in, amenable deaths should be minimal and declining over time. However, the fundamental causes theory proposes that inequalities in health will be largest across preventable causes, where unequally distributed resources can be used to gain an advantage. Information on individual‐level inequalities that may better reflect the fundamental causes remains limited. We used the Scottish Longitudinal Study, with follow‐up to 2010 to examine trends in amenable mortality by a range of socio‐economic position measures. Large inequalities were found for all measures of socio‐economic position and were lowest for educational attainment, higher for social class and highest for social connection. To reduce inequalities, amenable mortality needs to be interpreted both as an indicator of healthcare quality and as a reflection of the unequal distribution of socio‐economic resources.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2385
Output from project: 2015_001

Socio‐economic inequalities in rates of amenable mortality in Scotland: Analyses of the fundamental causes using the Scottish Longitudinal Study, 1991–2010

McMinn, MA., Seaman, R., Dundas, R., Pell, JP., Leyland, AH. (2020) Population, Space and Place e2385 Wiley Online 22 September 2020. [SLS]

Other information:

Abstract

Socio‐economic inequalities in amenable mortality rates are increasing across Europe, which is an affront to universal healthcare systems where the numbers of, and inequalities in, amenable deaths should be minimal and declining over time. However, the fundamental causes theory proposes that inequalities in health will be largest across preventable causes, where unequally distributed resources can be used to gain an advantage. Information on individual‐level inequalities that may better reflect the fundamental causes remains limited. We used the Scottish Longitudinal Study, with follow‐up to 2010 to examine trends in amenable mortality by a range of socio‐economic position measures. Large inequalities were found for all measures of socio‐economic position and were lowest for educational attainment, higher for social class and highest for social connection. To reduce inequalities, amenable mortality needs to be interpreted both as an indicator of healthcare quality and as a reflection of the unequal distribution of socio‐economic resources.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2385
Output from project: 2015_001

Impact of area deprivation on the cardiac mortality in the UK between1991 and 2010: evidence from a population-based longitudinal study

Jin, K., Neubeck, L., Atherton, I. (2020) European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, zvaa021, Oxford Academic, 5 December 2020. [SLS]

Other information:

Aims

Evidence from longitudinal studies on the influence of area deprivation in cardiac mortality is limited. We aimed to examine the impact of area deprivation on cardiac mortality in a large representative Scottish population. We also examined differences between women and men.

Methods and results

Retrospective analysis was performed by using linked data from Scottish Longitudinal Study from 1991 to 2010. The main exposure variable was socioeconomic status using the Carstairs deprivation scores, a composite score of area-level factors. Cox proportional-hazards models were constructed to evaluate the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for cardiac mortality and all-cause mortality associated with area-based deprivation. Subgroup analyses were stratified by sex. In a representative population of 217 965 UK adults, a total of 58 770 deaths occurred over a median of 10 years of follow-up period. The risk of cardiac mortality and all-cause mortality showed a consistent graded increased across the deprived groups. Compared to the least deprived group, the adjusted HR of cardiac mortality in the most deprived group was 1.27 (1.15–1.39, P < 0.000). There was strong evidence that women from more deprived areas had significantly higher cardiac death risk than those from the least deprived areas (HR 1.42, 95% CI 1.22–1.65), while this observation was not strong in men with same background.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated area deprivation was the strong predictor of long-term cardiac mortality and all-cause mortality. The inequalities were substantially greater in women from more deprived areas than men from the same background.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjcn/zvaa021
Output from project: 2018_009

Childhood socio-economic circumstances, cognitive function and education and later-life economic activity: linking the Scottish Mental Survey 1947 to administrative data

Iveson, M., Dibben, D., Deary, I.J. (2020) Longitudinal and Life Course Studies 11 (1), pp. 55-79(25) Bristol University Press 1 January 2020. [SLS]

Other information: Abstract: As the population ages, older adults are expected to work for longer into the life course. However, older adults experience particular problems staying economically active, even prior to reaching statutory retirement. Recent work has suggested that economic activity in midlife can be predicted by the far-reaching effects of early life, such as childhood socio-economic circumstances, cognitive ability and education. The present study investigates whether these same early-life factors predict the odds of being economically active much later in life, from age 55 to age 75. We capitalise on data linkage conducted between a subsample of the Scottish Mental Survey 1947 cohort and the Scottish Longitudinal Study, which includes three waves of national census data (1991, 2001 and 2011). The structural association between early-life factors and later-life economic activity was assessed using latent growth curve analyses conducted for males and females separately. In both males and females, the odds of being economically active decreased non-linearly across the 20-year follow-up period. For males, greater odds of being economically active at age 55 were predicted by higher childhood cognitive ability and higher educational attainment. For females, greater odds of being economically active at age 55 were predicted by higher childhood socio-economic status and higher childhood cognitive ability. In contrast, early-life factors did not predict the odds of becoming inactive over the 20-year follow-up period. We suggest that early-life advantage may contribute to the capacity for work in later life, but that it does not necessarily protect from subsequent decline in this capacity.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1332/175795919X15728445647266
Output from project: 2017_001

Inequalities in rates of amenable mortality by individual socioeconomic position in Scotland: analysis using Scottish Longitudinal Study 1991–2010

McMinn, MA., Seaman, R., Dundas, R., Pell, JP., Leyland, AH. (2020) Population, Place and Space Wiley Online 22 September 2020. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2385
Output from project: 2015_001

Use of sequence analysis for classifying individual antidepressant trajectories to monitor population mental health

Cherrie, M., Curtis, S., Baranyi, G., McTaggert, S., Cunningham, N., Licence, K., Dibben, C., Bambra, C., Pearce, J. (2020) BMC Psychiatry 20, 551, BMC/Springer, 23 November 2020. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02952-y
Output from project: 2015_015

Educational engagement, expectation and attainment of children with disabilities: Evidence from the Scottish Longitudinal Study

Cox, F.M., Marshall, A.D. (2020) 46 (1), 222-246 BERA [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3576
Output from project: 2015_006

Neighborhood Crime and Psychotropic Medications: A Longitudinal Data Linkage Study of 130,000 Scottish Adults

Baranyi, G., Cherrie, M., Curtis, S., Dibben, C.,Pearce, J. (2020) Elsevier 12 March 2020. [SLS]

Other information: INTRODUCTION: Although neighborhood crime has been associated with mental health problems, longitudinal research utilizing objective measures of small-area crime and mental health service use is lacking. This study examines how local crime is associated with newly prescribed psychotropic medications in a large longitudinal sample of Scottish adults and explores whether the relationships vary between sociodemographic groups. METHODS: Data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, a 5.3% representative sample of the population, were linked with police-recorded crime in 2011 for residential locality and with psychotropic medications from 2009 to 2014, extracted from the prescription data set of National Health Service Scotland. Individuals receiving medication during the first 6 months of observation were excluded; the remaining sample was followed for 5.5 years. Covariate-adjusted, multilevel mixed-effects logistic models estimated associations between area crime and prescriptions for antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anxiolytics (analyzed in 2018–2019). RESULTS: After adjustment for individual and neighborhood covariates, findings on 129,945 adults indicated elevated risk of antidepressant (OR=1.05, 95% CI=1.00, 1.10) and antipsychotic (OR=1.20, 95% CI=1.03, 1.39), but not anxiolytic (OR=0.99, 95% CI=0.93, 1.05) medication in high-crime areas. Crime showed stronger positive association with antidepressants among individuals (especially women) aged 24–53 years in 2009 and with antipsychotics among men aged 44–53 years in 2009. Skilled workers and people from lower nonmanual occupations had increased risk of medications in high-crime areas. CONCLUSIONS: Local crime is an important predictor of mental health, independent of individual and other contextual risk factors. Place-based crime prevention and targeting vulnerable groups may have benefits for population mental health.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.12.022
Output from project: 2015_015

Mobile no more? The innovative use of administrative data linked to a census-based longitudinal study to investigate migration within Scotland

McCollum, D., Ernsten-Birns, A., Feng, Z., Everington, D. (2020) Population, Space and Place Wiley 27 January 2020. [SLS]

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2312
Output from project: 2016_003

Educational engagement, expectation and attainment of children with disabilities

Cox, F & Marshall, A.D. (2019) BERA 11 September 2019. [SLS][CALLS]

Other information: Government statistics show that children with special educational needs and disabilities do not achieve as well academically as their peers, which impacts on later employment and socioeconomic circumstances. Addressing these inequalities is a key policy area which currently lacks a satisfactory evidence base. To explore the issue, the present study used data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study which contains data from the 1991, 2001 and 2011 censuses along with other administrative data, from a representative sample of the Scottish population. Using this large and longitudinal sample, the present study examines educational engagement, expectations and attainment for children with self‐reported disability, controlling for other early childhood factors. The results show that children with mental health problems were at higher risk of leaving school early, and that children with learning difficulties were less likely to gain advanced qualifications. Neither limiting long‐term illness in early childhood nor disability in adolescence were significant predictors of engagement, however, they did predict measures of academic expectation and attainment. Results suggest there is a critical phase for attainment, with area deprivation in early childhood but not adolescence being important for later educational inequalities.

Available online: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/berj.3576
Output from project: 2015_006

Does ethnic diversity explain intra-UK variation in mortality? A longitudinal cohort study

Schofield, L., Walsh, D., Feng, Z., Buchanan, D., Dibben, C., Fischbacher, C., McCartney, G., Munoz-Arroyo, R., White, B (2019) BMJ 30 March 2019. [SLS]

Other information: Abstract Objectives It has been proposed that part of the explanation for higher mortality in Scotland compared with England and Wales, and Glasgow compared with other UK cities, relates to greater ethnic diversity in England and Wales. We sought to assess the extent to which this excess was attenuated by adjusting for ethnicity. We additionally explored the role of country of birth in any observed differences. Setting Scotland and England and Wales; Glasgow and Manchester. Participants We used the Scottish Longitudinal Study and the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study of England and Wales (2001–2010). Participants (362 491 in total) were aged 35–74 years at baseline. Primary outcome measures Risk of all-cause mortality between 35 and 74 years old in Scotland and England and Wales, and in Glasgow and Manchester, adjusting for age, gender, socioeconomic position (SEP), ethnicity and country of birth. Results 18% of the Manchester sample was non-White compared with 3% in Glasgow (England and Wales: 10.4%; Scotland: 1.2%). The mortality incidence rate ratio was 1.33 (95% CI 1.13 to 1.56) in Glasgow compared with Manchester. This reduced to 1.25 (1.07 to 1.47) adjusting for SEP, and to 1.20 (1.02 to 1.42) adjusting for ethnicity and country of birth. For Scotland versus England and Wales, the corresponding figures were 18% higher mortality, reducing to 10%, and then 7%. Non-Whites born outside the UK had lower mortality. In the Scottish samples only, non-Whites born in the UK had significantly higher mortality than Whites born in the UK. Conclusions The research supports the hypothesis that ethnic diversity and migration from outside UK play a role in explaining Scottish excess mortality. In Glasgow especially, however, a large excess remains: thus, previously articulated policy implications (addressing poverty, vulnerability and inequality) still apply.

Available online: Link
Output from project: 2013_002

Inequalities in school leavers’ labour market outcomes: do school subject choices matter?

Iannelli, C. & Duta, A. (2018) Oxford Review of Education, 44 (1), [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Despite a wide international literature on the effect of vocational and general education on school-to-work transition, relatively little is known about the role of having studied specific subjects in explaining inequalities in young people’s labour market outcomes. This paper aims to fill this gap by examining differences in employment chances of young people who left education early, either at the end of compulsory schooling or at the end of secondary school. Using data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, a large-scale linkage study created using data from administrative and statistical sources, we found little gender differences but strong parental background differences in school leavers’ employment status and type of occupation entered. Social inequalities in labour market outcomes were only partly explained by curriculum choices. Moreover, after controlling for social origin and grades, only history and business for lower-secondary leavers and maths for upper-secondary leavers were associated with a reduction in the chances of being unemployed/inactive.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2018.1409970
Output from project: 2013_013

Determinants of occupational mobility: the importance of place of work

McCollum, D., Liu, Y., Findlay, A., Feng, Z. & Nightingale, G. (2018) Regional Studies. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This research focuses on individual and place-based determinants of occupational mobility in Scotland over the period 2001–11. Its originality relates to the importance of workplace location, rather than residential locations, on occupational mobility, and in questioning the idea that spatial mobility accelerates occupational mobility. The findings also indicate that skill level and employment in ‘knowledge-intensive’ sectors are key determinants of career progression. Urban career escalator effects are found to be particularly evident for higher-skilled workers. The findings point to the importance of spatial sophistication and sectoral sensitivity in understandings of occupational mobility.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2018.1424993
Output from project: 2015_005

The factors associated with entry to formal care for the elderly in Scotland: A longitudinal analysis

Corby, H., Everington, D., Starr, J., Deary, I,. Dibben, C. (2018) International Journal of Population Data Science (IJPDS) 3 (2), 15 June 2018. [SLS]

Available online: International Journal of Population Data Science (IJPDS)
Output from project: 2017_002

Local Crime and psychological distress in Scotland: a multilevel record-linkage study

Baranyi, G., Pearce, J., Dibben, C., Curtis, S. (2018) 28 (suppl_4) 1 November 2018. [SLS]

Other information: Background: Although there is an increasing amount of research on the effect of residential neighbourhoods on mental health, the causal pathways through which place influences health are not well understood. The aim of this study is to investigate whether local crime is associated with psychological distress and how area deprivation influences this relationship. Methods: We draw data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, a census- based nationally representative 5.3% sample of the Scottish population. We included anonymized data for over 150,000 individual adults in our analysis. The primary outcomes were self-reported mental health condition (2011 Census), as well as prescriptions for antidepressant and anxiolytics medications between 2009 and 2015 (NHS Scotland). Individual data were linked with data on levels of crime and Carstairs Deprivation Index for the person’s place of residence in 2011. Crime was ranked in quintiles for data zones (populations of 500-1000 per zone). Multilevel logistic regression models were applied to estimate the effect of local crime at data zone level. Results: Compared to the lowest crime neighbourhoods, increasing crime rates were strongly associated with all measures of psychological distress, even after controlling for individual characteristics in the model. When models were further adjusted for area level deprivation, the effect of crime decreased, but remained significant for reported mental health and antidepressant medication in the higher crime quintiles (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Local crime level in the neighbourhood is associated with self- reported mental illness and with prescriptions for common mental disorders. It may act as a ‘wider determinant’ of mental distress, independently of economic poverty and it may also

Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329112335_Local_crime_and_psychological_distress_in_Scotland_a_multilevel_record-linkage_study
Output from project: 2015_015

Changing labour market conditions during the ‘great recession’ and mental health in Scotland 2007-2011: an example using the Scottish Longitudinal Study and data for local areas in Scotland.

Pearce, J., Curtis, S., Cherrie, M., Dibben, C., Cunningham, N., Bambra, C (2018) 28 (suppl_4), 21 November 2018. [SLS]

Other information: Published online

Available online: https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/suppl_4/cky213.062/5186454
Output from project: 2015_015

A sibling study of whether maternal exposure to different types of natural space is related to birthweight

Richardson, E.A., Short, N.K., Mitchell, R. & Pearce, J. (2017) International Journal of Epidemiology (Advance), [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background
Birthweight is an important determinant of health across the life course. Maternal exposure to natural space has been linked to higher birthweight, but stronger evidence of a causal link is needed. We use a quasi-experimental sibling study design to investigate if change in the mother’s exposure to natural space between births was related to birthweight, in urban Scotland.

Methods
Amount (% area) of total natural space, total accessible (public) natural space, parks, woodlands and open water within 100 m of the mother’s postcode was calculated for eligible births (n = 40 194; 1991–2010) in the Scottish Longitudinal Study (a semi-random 5.3% sample of the Scottish population). Associations between natural space and birthweight were estimated, using ordinary least squares and fixed effects models.

Results
Birthweight was associated with the total amount of natural space around the mother’s home (+8.2 g for interquartile range increase), but was unrelated to specific types of natural space. This whole-sample relationship disappeared in the sibling analysis, indicating residual confounding. The sibling models showed effects for total natural space with births to women who already had children (+20.1 g), and to those with an intermediate level of education (+14.1 g).

Conclusions
The importance of total natural space for birthweight suggests that benefits can be experienced near to as well as within natural space. Ensuring expectant mothers have good access to high quality neighbourhood natural space has the potential to improve the infant’s start in life, and consequently their health trajectory over the life course.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyx258
Output from project: 2015_002

Does equality legislation reduce intergroup differences? Religious affiliation, socio-economic status and mortality in Scotland and Northern Ireland: A cohort study of 400,000 people

Wright, D., Rosato, M., Raab, G., Dibben, C., Boyle, P. & O'Reilly, D. (2017) Health and Place, 45 (May), 32 - 38 [SLS][NILS]

Other information:
SLS project page
NILS project page

Abstract:

Religion frequently indicates membership of socio-ethnic groups with distinct health behaviours and mortality risk. Determining the extent to which interactions between groups contribute to variation in mortality is often challenging. We compared socio-economic status (SES) and mortality rates of Protestants and Catholics in Scotland and Northern Ireland, regions in which interactions between groups are profoundly different. Crucially, strong equality legislation has been in place for much longer and Catholics form a larger minority in Northern Ireland. Drawing linked Census returns and mortality records of 404,703 people from the Scottish and Northern Ireland Longitudinal Studies, we used Poisson regression to compare religious groups, estimating mortality rates and incidence rate ratios. We fitted age-adjusted and fully adjusted (for education, housing tenure, car access and social class) models. Catholics had lower SES than Protestants in both countries; the differential was larger in Scotland for education, housing tenure and car access but not social class. In Scotland, Catholics had increased age-adjusted mortality risk relative to Protestants but variation among groups was attenuated following adjustment for SES. Those reporting no religious affiliation were at similar mortality risk to Protestants. In Northern Ireland, there was no mortality differential between Catholics and Protestants either before or after adjustment. Men reporting no religious affiliation were at increased mortality risk but this differential was not evident among women. In Scotland, Catholics remained at greater socio-economic disadvantage relative to Protestants than in Northern Ireland and were also at a mortality disadvantage. This may be due to a lack of explicit equality legislation that has decreased inequality by religion in Northern Ireland during recent decades.

Available online: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.02.009
Output from project: 2011_005 (SLS), 071 (NILS)

Do differences in religious affiliation explain high levels of excess mortality in the UK?

Ralston, K., Walsh, D., Feng, Z., Dibben, C., McCartney, G. & O'Reilly, D. (2017) Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 71 (5), 7 March 2017. [SLS][ONS LS]

Other information:
SLS project page
ONS LS project page

Abstract:

Background High levels of mortality not explained by differences in socioeconomic status (SES) have been observed for Scotland and its largest city, Glasgow, compared with elsewhere in the UK. Previous cross-sectional research highlighted potentially relevant differences in social capital, including religious social capital (the benefits of social participation in organised religion). The aim of this study was to use longitudinal data to assess whether religious affiliation (as measured in UK censuses) attenuated the high levels of Scottish excess mortality.

Methods The study used the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS) and the ONS Longitudinal Study of England and Wales. Risk of all-cause mortality (2001–2010) was compared between residents aged 35 and 74 years of Scotland and England and Wales, and between Glasgow and Liverpool/Manchester, using Poisson regression. Models adjusted for age, gender, SES and religious affiliation. Similar country-based analyses were undertaken for suicide.

Results After adjustment for age, gender and SES, all-cause mortality was 9% higher in Scotland than in England and Wales, and 27% higher in Glasgow than in Liverpool or Manchester. Religious affiliation was notably lower across Scotland; but, its inclusion in the models did not attenuate the level of Scottish excess all-cause mortality, and only marginally lowered the differences in risk of suicide.

Conclusions Differences in religious affiliation do not explain the higher mortality rates in Scotland compared with the rest of the UK. However, it is possible that other aspects of religion such as religiosity or religious participation which were not assessed here may still be important.

Available online: Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health
Output from project: 2013_002 (SLS), 0301598 (ONS LS)

The impact of spousal bereavement on hospitalisations: Evidence from the Scottish Longitudinal Study

Tseng, F., Petrie, D., Wang, S., Macduff, C. & Stephen, A.I. (2017) Health Economics [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This paper estimates the impact of spousal bereavement on hospital inpatient use for the surviving bereaved by following the experience of 94,272 married Scottish individuals from 1991 until 2009 using a difference-in-difference model. We also consider the sample selection issues related to differences in survival between the bereaved and non-bereaved using a simple Cox Proportional-Hazard model. Before conducting these estimations, propensity score approaches are used to re-weight the non-bereaved to generate a more random-like comparison sample for the bereaved.

We find that those bereaved who survive are both more likely to be admitted and to stay longer in hospital than a comparable non-bereaved cohort. Bereavement is estimated to induce on average an extra 0.24 (95% CI [0.15, 0.33]) hospital inpatient days per year. Similar to previous studies, we estimate the bereaved have a 19.2% (95% CI [12.5%, 26.3%]) higher mortality rate than the comparable non-bereaved cohort.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3573
Output from project: 2011_006

Household changes and diversity in housing consumption at older ages in Scotland

Fiori, F., Graham, E. & Feng, Z. (2017) Ageing & Society [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This paper contributes to understanding housing adjustments in later life by investigating the role of four key lifecourse transitions experienced by older individuals and their households, namely changes in health, retirement, union transitions and adult children leaving the household. Using data from a representative sample of the Scottish population for the decade 2001–2011, the study examines who moves and, for movers, whether they adjust their housing size in response to changes in their personal and household circumstances. In particular, the study explores diversity in housing consumption at older ages by investigating whether the triggers of upsizing or downsizing differ across tenure groups. The majority of older adults in Scotland do not change their place of residence during the study decade. For the minority who do move, all four lifecourse transitions are significant triggers for residential relocation but there is considerable diversity across the two major tenure groups in the influence of household changes on their housing consumption adjustments. In both tenure groups, however, the presence of children in the household is associated with upsizing and is a significant impediment to downsizing. Given the relative rootedness of older parents with co-resident adult children and their propensity to upsize rather than downsize if they move, our findings raise concerns over the interdependencies between younger and older generations in the housing market.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X17000873
Output from project: 2013_011

Patterns of mortality by occupation in the UK, 1991–2011: a comparative analysis of linked census and mortality records

Katikireddi, S.V., Leyland, A.H., McKee, M., Ralston, K. & Stickler, D. (2017) The Lancet Public Health 2 (11), e501-e12 [SLS][ONS LS][NILS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background
Detailed assessments of mortality by occupation are scarce. We aimed to assess mortality by occupation in the UK, differences in rates between England and Wales and Scotland, and changes over time in Scotland.

Methods
We analysed adults of working age (20–59 years) using linked census and death records. Main occupation was coded into more than 60 groups in the 2001 census, with mortality follow-up until Dec 31, 2011. Comparable occupation data were available for Scotland in 1991, allowing assessment of trends over time. We calculated age-standardised all-cause mortality rates (per 100 000 person-years), stratified by sex. We used Monte Carlo simulation to derive p values and 95% CIs for the difference in mortality over time and between England and Wales and Scotland.

Findings
During 4·51 million person-years of follow-up, mortality rates by occupation differed by more than three times between the lowest and highest observed rates in both men and women. Among men in England and Wales, health professionals had the lowest mortality (225 deaths per 100 000 person-years [95% CI 145–304]), with low rates also shown in managers and teachers. The highest mortality rates were in elementary construction (701 deaths per 100 000 person-years [95% CI 593–809]), and housekeeping and factory workers. Among women, teachers and business professionals had low mortality, and factory workers and garment trade workers had high rates. Mortality rates have generally fallen, but have stagnated or even increased among women in some occupations, such as cleaners (337 deaths per 100 000 person years [95% CI 292–382] in 1991, rising to 426 deaths per 100 000 person years in 2001 [371–481]). Findings from simulation models suggested that if mortality rates by occupation in England and Wales applied to Scotland, 631 fewer men (95% CI 285–979; a 9·7% decrease) and 273 fewer women (26–513; 6·7% decrease) of working age would die in Scotland every year. Excess deaths in Scotland were concentrated among lower skilled occupations (eg, female cleaners).

Interpretation
Mortality rates differ greatly by occupation. The excess mortality in Scotland is concentrated among low-skilled workers and, although mortality has improved in men and women in most occupational groups, some groups have experienced increased rates. Future research investigating the specific causes of death at the detailed occupational level will be valuable, particularly with a view to understanding the health implications of precarious employment and the need to improve working conditions in very specific occupational groups.


SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page

Available online: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30193-7
Output from project: 2013_015 (SLS), 092 (NILS), 0301753 (ONS LS)

Socioeconomic disadvantage, fetal environment and child development: linked Scottish administrative records based study

Playford, C.J., Dibben, C. & Williamson, L. (2017) International Journal for Equity in Health, 16:203 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background
Cognitive development in childhood is negatively affected by socioeconomic disadvantage. This study examined whether differences in fetal environment might mediate the association between family socioeconomic position and child development.

Methods
Data were linked from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, maternity inpatient records and the Child Health Surveillance Programme – Pre School for 32,238 children. The outcome variables were based on health visitor assessment of gross motor, hearing and language, vision and fine motor, and social development. Socioeconomic position was measured using parental social class and highest qualification attained. Random-effects logistic regression models were estimated to account for multiple reviews and familial clustering. Mediation analysis was conducted using the Karlson-Holm-Breen method.

Results
Hearing and language, vision and fine motor, and social development were associated with lower parental social class and lower parental educational qualifications after adjustment for fetal environment. Fetal environment partially mediated the estimated effect of having parents without educational qualifications for hearing and language (β = 0·15; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0·07, 0·23), vision and fine motor (β = 0·19; CI = 0·10, 0·28) and social development (β = 0·14; CI = 0·03 to 0·25).

Conclusions
Socioeconomic position predicted hearing and language, vision and fine motor, and social development but not gross motor development. For children of parents without educational qualifications, fetal environment appears to contribute to a part of the socioeconomic gradient in child development abnormalities but post-natal environment appears to still explain the majority of the gradient and for other children most of it.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0698-4
Output from project: 2011_001

Guidelines for Producing Useful Synthetic Data

Raab, G.M., Nowok, B. & Dibben, C. (2017) arXiv 1712.04078 12 December 2017. [SLS][ONS LS][NILS][CALLS]

Other information:

SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page


Abstract:

We report on our experiences of helping staff of the Scottish Longitudinal Study to create synthetic extracts that can be released to users. In particular, we focus on how the synthesis process can be tailored to produce synthetic extracts that will provide users with similar results to those that would be obtained from the original data. We make recommendations for synthesis methods and illustrate how the staff creating synthetic extracts can evaluate their utility at the time they are being produced. We discuss measures of utility for synthetic data and show that one tabular utility measure is exactly equivalent to a measure calculated from a propensity score. The methods are illustrated by using the R package synthpop to create synthetic versions of data from the 1901 Census of Scotland.

Available online: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1712.04078.pdf
Output from project: 2013_012 (SLS), 30158 (ONS LS), 079 (NILS)

A synthetic Longitudinal Study dataset for England and Wales

Dennett, A., Norman, P., Shelton, N. & Stuchbury, R. (2016) Data in Brief [SLS][ONS LS][NILS][CALLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This article describes the new synthetic England and Wales Longitudinal Study ‘spine’ dataset designed for teaching and experimentation purposes. In the United Kingdom, there exist three Census-based longitudinal micro-datasets, known collectively as the Longitudinal Studies. The England and Wales Longitudinal Study (LS) is a 1% sample of the population of England and Wales (around 500,000 individuals), linking individual person records from the 1971 to 2011 Censuses. The synthetic data presented contains a similar number of individuals to the original data and accurate longitudinal transitions between 2001 and 2011 for key demographic variables, but unlike the original data, is open access.


SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page

Available online: Data in Brief
Output from project: 2013_012 (SLS), 30158 (ONS LS), 079 (NILS)

Inequalities in mental health: geographical perspectives

Curtis, S., Everington, D. & Niedzwiedz, C. (2016) The Geographer, Summer, 2016. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

When discussing health inequalities, it is important to consider mental as well as physical health. Mental health issues affect a large proportion of the population in countries around the globe. For example, NHS Health Scotland reported that ~15% of the adult Scotland population who participated in the Scottish Health Survey reported common mental health problems in response to the General Health Questionnaire.

The pattern of mental disorders is socially uneven, and people in more disadvantaged groups tend to be more likely to suffer from problems with their mental health. The places where we live are important for mental health inequalities, as well as individual and family factors.

Available online: https://rsgs.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/RSGS-The-Geographer-summer-2016.pdf
Output from project: 2015_015

Pathways between Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Childhood Growth in the Scottish Longitudinal Study, 1991–2001

Silverwood, R.J., Williamson, L., Grundy, E.M. & De Stavola, B.L. (2016) PLOS One 11 (10), e0164853 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Socioeconomically disadvantaged children are more likely to be of shorter stature and overweight, leading to greater risk of obesity in adulthood. Disentangling the mediatory pathways between socioeconomic disadvantage and childhood size may help in the development of appropriate policies aimed at reducing these health inequalities. We aimed to elucidate the putative mediatory role of birth weight using a representative sample of the Scottish population born 1991–2001 (n = 16,628). Estimated height and overweight/obesity at age 4.5 years were related to three measures of socioeconomic disadvantage (mother’s education, Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation, synthetic weekly income). Mediation was examined using two approaches: a ‘traditional’ mediation analysis and a counterfactual-based mediation analysis. Both analyses identified a negative effect of each measure of socioeconomic disadvantage on height, mediated to some extent by birth weight, and a positive ‘direct effect’ of mother’s education and Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation on overweight/obesity, which was partly counterbalanced by a negative ‘indirect effect’. The extent of mediation estimated when adopting the traditional approach was greater than when adopting the counterfactual-based approach because of inappropriate handling of intermediate confounding in the former. Our findings suggest that higher birth weight in more disadvantaged groups is associated with reduced social inequalities in height but also with increased inequalities in overweight/obesity.

Available online: PLOS One
Output from project: 2013_008

Practical data synthesis for large samples

Raab, G.M., Nowok, B. & Dibben, C. (2016) Journal of Privacy and Confidentiality 7 (3), 67-97. [SLS][ONS LS][NILS][CALLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

We describe results on the creation and use of synthetic data that were derived in the context of a project to make synthetic extracts available for users of the UK Longitudinal Studies. A critical review of existing methods of inference from large synthetic data sets is presented. We introduce new variance estimates for use with large samples of completely synthesised data that do not require them to be generated from the posterior predictive distribution derived from the observed data and can be used with a single synthetic data set. We make recommendations on how to synthesise data based on these findings. An example of synthesising data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study is included to illustrate our results.


SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page

Available online: https://journalprivacyconfidentiality.org/index.php/jpc/article/view/407
Output from project: 2013_012 (SLS), 30158 (ONS LS), 079 (NILS)

Gender, Occupation and First Birth: Do ‘Career Men’ Delay First Birth Too?

Ralston, K., Gayle, V. & Lambert, P. (2016) Sociological Research Online, 21 (1), 3. 28 February 2016. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

In the period following the turn of the Century European total fertility rates (TFR) dropped to well below replacement. Work examining this highlights that cohort postponement in births contributes to low TFRs. It is generally recognised that women in more advantaged occupations often postpone childbearing in contrast to those in less advantaged occupational groups. However, relatively little research has been conducted on men in similar terms. This paper contrasts the timing of first birth by occupational class between men and women using individual level data in a case study of Scotland. The data are an extract from the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS). This provides a 5.3% sample of the population of Scotland from the 1991 Census. The research applies the Cox proportional hazard model to estimate the speed to first birth during a period of observation between 1991 and 2006. Class is measured using NS-SEC 8 class analytic version. The model controls marital status, educational attainment, raised religion and urban-rural geography. It is found that 'career men' who occupy more advantaged occupational positions do not delay first birth in contrast to men in other occupational categories. This is in contrast to the well-known phenomenon of career women who have later childbearing. Our analysis shows that gender inequalities in how the social structure influences childbearing offer an avenue of explanation for wider patterns of social inequality.

Available online: Sociological Research Online,
Output from project: 2008_004

Parental socioeconomic influences on filial educational outcomes in Scotland: patterns of school-level educational performance using administrative data

Playford, C., Gayle, V., Connelly, R. & Murray, S. (2016) Contemporary Social Science: Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences. 16 May 2016. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

In Britain there have been manifest changes in the management and organisation of education, but despite these developments there are still persistent inequalities in pupils’ educational outcomes. These inequalities are consequential because school qualifications are known to influence both pupils’ immediate continuation in education, and their later educational and occupational outcomes. The Scottish school system is similar to the system in England and Wales but there are a distinctive set of qualifications. From the mid-1980s until 2013 the final years of compulsory schooling led up to Standard Grade qualifications. Standard Grades were similar to the General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs) and are worthy of detailed sociological examination because they were the first major branching point in the Scottish education system. A specialist dataset using administrative records was constructed for this project. The dataset comprises young people who undertook Standard Grades in Scottish schools between 2007 and 2011, who were members of the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS). We analyse pupils’ subject-area outcomes using a latent variable modelling approach, and explore characteristics associated with the membership of latent educational groups. The analyses uncovered four main latent educational groups. One group had very positive outcomes and pupils were generally more socially advantaged; another group had very poor outcomes and were generally more socially disadvantaged. There were two ‘middle’ groups, which both had similar moderate overall Standard Grade outcomes, but notably different subject-area-level outcomes. We conclude that during school hours these pupils are unlikely to be found drinking Iron Brew WKD in their local parks or at home playing on their Xbox; however, they are also unlikely to be filling out university application forms in the next couple of years.

Available online: Contemporary Social Science: Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences.
Output from project: 2014_005

Comments on four papers on synthetic data in Volume 32 Issue 1 the Statistical Journal of the IAOS

Raab, G. (2016) Statistical Journal of the IAOS, 32, 267 - 269 [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

One of several explanations of why Homo Sapiens is the only surviving sub-species of the genus Homo is the extended length of our childhood and adolescence. The value of this extended maturation and developing period may be that it allows us to learn and carry out complex tasks. Like Homo Sapiens, methodology for synthetic data has had a long learning period. The idea of using synthetic data for disclosure control was con- ceived more than 20 years ago [1–3], but it was a fur- ther 10 years before the first papers describing how to do it appeared in the literature [4,5]. The subsequent decade was one of rapid development and innovation when the methodology was tested and expanded. The energy and enthusiasm for synthetic data of Reiter and his colleagues was responsible for many major de- velopments; see the monograph by Drechsler [6] for a review. Towards the end of synthetic data’s second decade real applications began to appear [7–9]. Two of the four substantial papers that deal with synthetic data in this issue [10,11] are examples of mature methodol- ogy, while the other two [12,13] deal with disclosure control, the aspect of synthetic data that is at an early stage in its development. My comments here are from the point of view of a practitioner looking for useful and workable ideas in this field. Our project to pro- vide data for the UK Longitudinal Studies (LSs) is re- ferred to in Vilhuber et. al.’s overview of international developments [14]. More details of our methods and our synthpop package for R are available [15–17].


SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page

Available online: Statistical Journal of the IAOS,
Download output document: Full Paper (PDF 65KB)
Output from project: 2013_012 (SLS), 30158 (ONS LS), 079 (NILS)

Do young people not in education, employment or training experience long-term occupational scarring? A longitudinal analysis over 20 years of follow-up

Ralston, K., Feng, Z., Everington, D. & Dibben, C. (2016) Contemporary Social Science: Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Not in education, employment or training (NEET) is a contested concept in the literature. However, it is consistently used by policy-makers and shown in research to be associated with negative outcomes. In this paper we examine whether NEET status is associated with subsequent occupational scarring using the Scottish Longitudinal Study which provides a 5.3% sample of Scotland, based on the censuses of 1991, 2001 and 2011. We model occupational position, using CAMSIS, controlling for the influence of sex, limiting long-term illness, educational attainment and geographical deprivation. We find the NEET categorisation to be a strong marker of subsequent negative outcomes at the aggregate level. This appears to be redolent of a Matthew effect, whereby disadvantage accumulates to the already disadvantaged. Our results also show that negative NEET effects are variable when stratifying by educational attainment and are different for men and women. These findings confirm that there are negative effects on occupational position associated with prior NEET status but that outcomes are heterogeneous depending on levels of education and gender.

Available online: Contemporary Social Science: Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences.
Output from project: 2013_005

Living in stressful neighbourhoods during pregnancy: an observational study of crime rates and birth outcomes

Clemens, T. & Dibben, C. (2016) European Journal of Public Health, 27 (2), 197-202 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background: Patterns of adverse birth outcomes vary spatially and there is evidence that this may relate to features of the physical environment such as air pollution. However, other social characteristics of the environment such as levels of crime are relatively understudied. This study examines the association between crime rates and birth weight and prematurity. Methods: Maternity inpatient data recorded at birth, including residential postcode, was linked to a representative 5% sample of Scottish Census data and small area crime rates from Scottish Police forces. Coefficients associated with crime were reported from crude and confounder adjusted models predicting low birth weight (< 2500 g), mean birthweight, small for gestational age and prematurity for all singleton live births. Results: Total crime rates were associated with strong and significant reductions in mean birth weight and increases in the risks of both a small for gestational age baby and premature birth. These effects, with the exception of prematurity, were robust to adjustment for individual characteristics including smoking, ethnicity and other socio-economic variables as well as area based confounders including air pollution. Mean birth weight was robust to additional adjustment for neighbourhood income deprivation. Conclusion: The level of crime in a mother’s area of residence, which may be a proxy for the degree of threat felt and therefore stress experienced, appears to be an important determinant of the risk of adverse birth outcomes.

Available online: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckw131
Output from project: 2007_011

What is the effect of unemployment on all-cause mortality? A cohort study using propensity score matching

Clemens, T., Popham, F. & Boyle, P. (2015) European Journal of Public Health, 25 (1), 115 - 121 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background: There is a strong association between unemployment and mortality, but whether this relationship is causal remains debated. This study utilizes population-level administrative data from Scotland within a propensity score framework to explore whether the association between unemployment and mortality may be causal.

Methods: The study examined a sample of working men and women aged 25–54 in 1991. Subsequent employment status in 2001 was observed (in work or unemployed) and the relative all-cause mortality risk of unemployment between 2001 and 2010 was estimated. To account for potential selection into unemployment of those in poor health, a propensity score matching approach was used. Matching variables were observed prior to unemployment and included health status up to the year of unemployment (hospital admissions and self-reported limiting long-term illness), as well as measures of socioeconomic position.

Results: Unemployment was associated with a significant all-cause mortality risk relative to employment for men (hazard ratio [HR] 1.85; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.33–2.55). This effect was robust to controlling for prior health and sociodemographic characteristics. Effects for women were smaller and statistically insignificant (HR 1.51; 95% CI 0.68–3.37).

Conclusion: For men, the findings support the notion that the often-observed association between unemployment and mortality may contain a significant causal component; although for women, there is less support for this conclusion. However, female employment status, as recorded in the census, is more complex than for men and may have served to underestimate any mortality effect of unemployment. Future work should examine this issue further.

Available online: European Journal of Public Health,
Output from project: 2008_005

Obesity and the potential reduction of social inequalities in mortality: evidence from 21 European populations

Hoffman, R., Eikemo, T.A., Kulhánová, I., Kulik, M.C., Looman, C., Menvielle, G., Deboosere, P., Martikainen, P., Regidor, E. & Mackenbach, J.P. (2015) European Journal of Public Health, 25 (5), 849 - 856. 25 May 2015. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background: Obesity contributes considerably to the problem of health inequalities in many countries, but quantitative estimates of this contribution and to what extent it is modifiable are scarce. We identify the potential for reducing educational inequalities in all-cause and obesity-related mortality in 21 European populations, by modifying educational differences in obesity and overweight. Methods: Prevalence data and mortality data come from 21 European populations. Mortality rate ratios come from literature reviews. We use the population attributable fraction (PAF) to estimate the impact of scenario-based changes in the social distribution of obesity on educational inequalities in mortality. Results: An elimination of differences in obesity between educational groups would decrease relative inequality in all-cause mortality between those with high and low education by up to 12% for men and 42% for women. About half of the relative inequality in mortality could be reduced for some causes of death in several countries, often in southern Europe. Absolute inequalities in all-cause mortality would be reduced by up to 69 (men) and 67 (women) deaths per 100 000 person-years. Conclusion: The potential reduction of health inequality by an elimination of social inequalities in obesity might be substantial. The reductions differ by country, cause of death and gender, suggesting that the priority given to obesity as an entry-point for tackling health inequalities should differ between countries and gender.

Available online: European Journal of Public Health,
Output from project: 2011_003

Place of work and residential exposure to ambient air pollution and birth outcomes in Scotland, using geographically fine pollution climate mapping estimates

Dibben, C. & Clemens, T. (2015) Environmental Research, 140 (July), 535 - 541 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Objectives
A relationship between ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes has been found in a large number of studies that have mainly used a nearest monitor methodology. Recent research has suggested that the effect size may have been underestimated in these studies. This paper examines associations between birth outcomes and ambient levels of residential and workplace sulphur dioxide, particulates and Nitrogen Dioxide estimated using an alternative method – pollution climate mapping.

Methods
Risk of low birthweight and mean birthweight (for n=21,843 term births) and risk of preterm birth (for n=23,086 births) were modelled against small area annual mean ambient air pollution concentrations at work and residence location adjusting for potential confounding factors for singleton live births (1994–2008) across Scotland.

Results
Odds ratios of low birthweight of 1.02 (95% CI, 1.01–1.03) and 1.07 (95% CI, 1.01–1.12) with concentration increases of 1 µg/m3 for NO2 and PM10 respectively. Raised but insignificant risks of very preterm birth were found with PM10 (relative risk ratio=1.08; 95% CI, 1.00 to 1.17 per 1 µg/m3) and NO2 (relative risk ratio=1.01; 95% CI, 1.00 to 1.03 per 1 µg/m3). An inverse association between mean birthweight and mean annual NO2(−1.24 g; 95% CI, −2.02 to −0.46 per 1 µg/m3) and PM10 (−5.67 g; 95% CI, −9.47 to −1.87 per 1 µg/m3). SO2 showed no significant associations.

Conclusions
This study highlights the association between air pollution exposure and reduced newborn size at birth. Together with other recent work it also suggests that exposure estimation based on the nearest monitor method may have led to an under-estimation of the effect size of pollutants on birth outcomes.

Available online: Environmental Research,
Output from project: 2007_011

Mortality differences and inequalities within and between ‘protected characteristics’ groups, in a Scottish Cohort 1991–2009

Millard, A.D., Raab, G., Lewsey, J., Eaglesham, P., Craig, P., Ralston, K. & McCartney, G. (2015) International Journal for Equity in Health, 14: 142 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background
Little is known about the interaction between socio-economic status and ‘protected characteristics’ in Scotland. This study aimed to examine whether differences in mortality were moderated by interactions with social class or deprivation. The practical value was to pinpoint population groups for priority action on health inequality reduction and health improvement rather than a sole focus on the most deprived socioeconomic groups.

Methods
We used data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study which captures a 5.3 % sample of Scotland and links the censuses of 1991, 2001 and 2011. Hazard ratios for mortality were estimated for those protected characteristics with sufficient deaths using Cox proportional hazards models and through the calculation of European age-standardised mortality rates. Inequality was measured by calculating the Relative Index of Inequality (RII).

Results
The Asian population had a polarised distribution across deprivation deciles and was more likely to be in social class I and II. Those reporting disablement were more likely to live in deprived areas, as were those raised Roman Catholic, whilst those raised as Church of Scotland or as ‘other Christian’ were less likely to. Those aged 35-54 years were the least likely to live in deprived areas and were most likely to be in social class I and II. Males had higher mortality than females, and disabled people had higher mortality than non-disabled people, across all deprivation deciles and social classes. Asian males and females had generally lower mortality hazards than majority ethnic (‘White’) males and females although the estimates for Asian males and females were imprecise in some social classes and deprivation deciles. Males and females who reported their raised religion as Roman Catholic or reported ‘No religion’ had generally higher mortality than other groups, although the estimates for ‘Other religion’ and ‘Other Christian’ were less precise.Using both the area deprivation and social class distributions for the whole population, relative mortality inequalities were usually greater amongst those who did not report being disabled, Asians and females aged 35-44 years, males by age, and people aged <75 years. The RIIs for the raised religious groups were generally similar or too imprecise to comment on differences.

Conclusions
Mortality in Scotland is higher in the majority population, disabled people, males, those reporting being raised as Roman Catholics or with ‘no religion’ and lower in Asians, females and other religious groups. Relative inequalities in mortality were lower in disabled than nondisabled people, the majority population, females, and greatest in young adults. From the perspective of intersectionality theory, our results clearly demonstrate the importance of representing multiple identities in research on health inequalities.

Available online: International Journal for Equity in Health,
Output from project: 2012_003

Inequalities in Alcohol-Related Mortality in 17 European Countries: A Retrospective Analysis of Mortality Registers

Mackenbach, J.P., Kulhánová, I., Bopp, M., Borrell, C., Deboosere, P., Kovács, K., Looman, C.W.N., Leinsalu, M., Mäkelä, P., Martikainen, P., Menvielle, G., Rodríguez-Sanz, M., Rychtaříková, J. & de Gelder, R. (2015) PLOS Medicine, e1001909, 1 December 2015. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background Socioeconomic inequalities in alcohol-related mortality have been documented in several European countries, but it is unknown whether the magnitude of these inequalities differs between countries and whether these inequalities increase or decrease over time.

Methods and Findings
We collected and harmonized data on mortality from four alcohol-related causes (alcoholic psychosis, dependence, and abuse; alcoholic cardiomyopathy; alcoholic liver cirrhosis; and accidental poisoning by alcohol) by age, sex, education level, and occupational class in 20 European populations from 17 different countries, both for a recent period and for previous points in time, using data from mortality registers. Mortality was age-standardized using the European Standard Population, and measures for both relative and absolute inequality between low and high socioeconomic groups (as measured by educational level and occupational class) were calculated.

Rates of alcohol-related mortality are higher in lower educational and occupational groups in all countries. Both relative and absolute inequalities are largest in Eastern Europe, and Finland and Denmark also have very large absolute inequalities in alcohol-related mortality. For example, for educational inequality among Finnish men, the relative index of inequality is 3.6 (95% CI 3.3–4.0) and the slope index of inequality is 112.5 (95% CI 106.2–118.8) deaths per 100,000 person-years. Over time, the relative inequality in alcohol-related mortality has increased in many countries, but the main change is a strong rise of absolute inequality in several countries in Eastern Europe (Hungary, Lithuania, Estonia) and Northern Europe (Finland, Denmark) because of a rapid rise in alcohol-related mortality in lower socioeconomic groups. In some of these countries, alcohol-related causes now account for 10% or more of the socioeconomic inequality in total mortality.

Because our study relies on routinely collected underlying causes of death, it is likely that our results underestimate the true extent of the problem.

Conclusions
Alcohol-related conditions play an important role in generating inequalities in total mortality in many European countries. Countering increases in alcohol-related mortality in lower socioeconomic groups is essential for reducing inequalities in mortality. Studies of why such increases have not occurred in countries like France, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy can help in developing evidence-based policies in other European countries.

Available online: PLOS Medicine,
Output from project: 2013_006

Association between Socioeconomic Factors and Cancer Risk: A Population Cohort Study in Scotland (1991-2006)

Sharpe, K.H., McMahon, A.D., Raab, G.M., Brewster, D.H. & Conway, D.I. (2014) PLoS ONE 9 (2), e89513. 27 February 2014. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background Lung and upper aero-digestive tract (UADT) cancer risk are associated with low socioeconomic circumstances and routinely measured using area socioeconomic indices. We investigated effect of country of birth, marital status, one area deprivation measure and individual socioeconomic variables (economic activity, education, occupational social class, car ownership, household tenure) on risk associated with lung, UADT and all cancer combined (excluding non melanoma skin cancer).

Methods We linked Scottish Longitudinal Study and Scottish Cancer Registry to follow 203,658 cohort members aged 15+ years from 1991–2006. Relative risks (RR) were calculated using Poisson regression models by sex offset for person-years of follow-up.

Results 21,832 first primary tumours (including 3,505 lung, 1,206 UADT) were diagnosed. Regardless of cancer, economically inactivity (versus activity) was associated with increased risk (male: RR 1.14, 95% CI 1.10–1.18; female: RR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02–1.11). For lung cancer, area deprivation remained significant after full adjustment suggesting the area deprivation cannot be fully explained by individual variables. No or non degree qualification (versus degree) was associated with increased lung risk; likewise for UADT risk (females only). Occupational social class associations were most pronounced and elevated for UADT risk. No car access (versus ownership) was associated with increased risk (excluding all cancer risk, males). Renting (versus home ownership) was associated with increased lung cancer risk, UADT cancer risk (males only) and all cancer risk (females only). Regardless of cancer group, elevated risk was associated with no education and living in deprived areas.

Conclusions Different and independent socioeconomic variables are inversely associated with different cancer risks in both sexes; no one socioeconomic variable captures all aspects of socioeconomic circumstances or life course. Association of multiple socioeconomic variables is likely to reflect the complexity and multifaceted nature of deprivation as well as the various roles of these dimensions over the life course.

Available online: PLoS ONE
Download output document: Full paper (PDF 212KB)
Output from project: 2009_005

Occupational Class Inequalities in All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality among Middle-Aged Men in 14 European Populations during the Early 2000s

Toch-Marquardt, M., Menvielle, G., Eikemo, T.A., Kulhánová, I., Kulik, M.C., Bopp, M., Esnaola, S., Jailionis, D., Mäki, N., Martikainen, P., Regidor, E., Lundberg, O. & Mackenback, J.P. (2014) PLOS One, 9 (9), e108072 30 September 2014. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This study analyses occupational class inequalities in all-cause mortality and four specific causes of death among men, in Europe in the early 2000s, and is the most extensive comparative analysis of occupational class inequalities in mortality in Europe so far. Longitudinal data, obtained from population censuses and mortality registries in 14 European populations, from around the period 2000–2005, were used. Analyses concerned men aged 30–59 years and included all-cause mortality and mortality from all cancers, all cardiovascular diseases (CVD), all external, and all other causes. Occupational class was analysed according to five categories: upper and lower non-manual workers, skilled and unskilled manual workers, and farmers and self-employed combined. Inequalities were quantified with mortality rate ratios, rate differences, and population attributable fractions (PAF). Relative and absolute inequalities in all-cause mortality were more pronounced in Finland, Denmark, France, and Lithuania than in other populations, and the same countries (except France) also had the highest PAF values for all-cause mortality. The main contributing causes to these larger inequalities differed strongly between countries (e.g., cancer in France, all other causes in Denmark). Relative and absolute inequalities in CVD mortality were markedly lower in Southern European populations. We conclude that relative and absolute occupational class differences in all-cause and cause specific mortality have persisted into the early 2000's, although the magnitude differs strongly between populations. Comparisons with previous studies suggest that the relative gap in mortality between occupational classes has further widened in some Northern and Western European populations.

Available online: PLOS One,
Output from project: 2011_003

DataSHIELD: taking the analysis to the data, not the data to the analysis

Gaye, A., Marcon, Y., Isaeva, J., LaFlamme, P., Turner, A., Jones, E.M., Minion, J., Boyd, A.W., Newby, C.J., Nuotio, M., Wilson, R., Butters, O., Murtagh, B., Demir, I., Doiron, D., Giepmans, L., Wallace, S.E., Budin-Ljøsne, I., Schmidt, C.O., Boffetta, P., Boniol, M., Bota, M., Carter, K.W., deKlerk, N., Dibben, C., Francis, R.W., Hiekkalinna, T., Hveem, K., Kvaløy, K., Millar, S., Perry, I.J., Peters, A., Phillips, C.M., Popham, F., Raab, G., Reischl, E., Sheehan, N., Waldenberger, M., Perola, M., van den Heuvel, E., Macleod, J., Knoppers, B.M., Stolk, R.P., Fortier, I., Harris, J.R., Woffenbuttel, B.H.R., Murtagh, M.J., Ferretti, V. & Burton, P.R. (2014) International Journal of Epidemiology 43 (6), 1929 - 1944 26 September 2014. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background: Research in modern biomedicine and social science requires sample sizes so large that they can often only be achieved through a pooled co-analysis of data from several studies. But the pooling of information from individuals in a central database that may be queried by researchers raises important ethico-legal questions and can be controversial. In the UK this has been highlighted by recent debate and controversy relating to the UK’s proposed ‘care.data’ initiative, and these issues reflect important societal and professional concerns about privacy, confidentiality and intellectual property. DataSHIELD provides a novel technological solution that can circumvent some of the most basic challenges in facilitating the access of researchers and other healthcare professionals to individual-level data.

Methods: Commands are sent from a central analysis computer (AC) to several data computers (DCs) storing the data to be co-analysed. The data sets are analysed simultaneously but in parallel. The separate parallelized analyses are linked by non-disclosive summary statistics and commands transmitted back and forth between the DCs and the AC. This paper describes the technical implementation of DataSHIELD using a modified R statistical environment linked to an Opal database deployed behind the computer firewall of each DC. Analysis is controlled through a standard R environment at the AC.

Results: Based on this Opal/R implementation, DataSHIELD is currently used by the Healthy Obese Project and the Environmental Core Project (BioSHaRE-EU) for the federated analysis of 10 data sets across eight European countries, and this illustrates the opportunities and challenges presented by the DataSHIELD approach.

Conclusions: DataSHIELD facilitates important research in settings where: (i) a co-analysis of individual-level data from several studies is scientifically necessary but governance restrictions prohibit the release or sharing of some of the required data, and/or render data access unacceptably slow; (ii) a research group (e.g. in a developing nation) is particularly vulnerable to loss of intellectual property—the researchers want to fully share the information held in their data with national and international collaborators, but do not wish to hand over the physical data themselves; and (iii) a data set is to be included in an individual-level co-analysis but the physical size of the data precludes direct transfer to a new site for analysis.

Available online: International Journal of Epidemiology

How can inequalities in mortality be reduced? A quantitative analysis of 6 risk factors in 21 European populations

Eikemo, T.A., Hoffman, R., Kulik, M.C., Kulhánová, I., Toch-Marquardt, M., Menvielle, G., Looman, C., Jasilionis, D., Martikainen, P., Lundberg, O. & Mackenbach, J. (2014) PLOS One, 9 (11), e110952. 4 November 2014. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

BACKGROUND:
Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality are one of the greatest challenges for health policy in all European countries, but the potential for reducing these inequalities is unclear. We therefore quantified the impact of equalizing the distribution of six risk factors for mortality: smoking, overweight, lack of physical exercise, lack of social participation, low income, and economic inactivity.

METHODS:
We collected and harmonized data on mortality and risk factors by educational level for 21 European populations in the early 2000s. The impact of the risk factors on mortality in each educational group was determined using Population Attributable Fractions. We estimated the impact on inequalities in mortality of two scenarios: a theoretical upward levelling scenario in which inequalities in the risk factor were completely eliminated, and a more realistic best practice scenario, in which inequalities in the risk factor were reduced to those seen in the country with the smallest inequalities for that risk factor.

FINDINGS:
In general, upward levelling of inequalities in smoking, low income and economic inactivity hold the greatest potential for reducing inequalities in mortality. While the importance of low income is similar across Europe, smoking is more important in the North and East, and overweight in the South. On the basis of best practice scenarios the potential for reducing inequalities in mortality is often smaller, but still substantial in many countries for smoking and physical inactivity.

INTERPRETATION:
Theoretically, there is a great potential for reducing inequalities in mortality in most European countries, for example by equity-oriented tobacco control policies, income redistribution and employment policies. Although it is necessary to achieve substantial degrees of upward levelling to make a notable difference for inequalities in mortality, the existence of best practice countries with more favourable distributions for some of these risk factors suggests that this is feasible.

Available online: PLOS One,
Output from project: 2011_003

A simplified approach to generating synthetic data for disclosure control

Raab, G., Nowok, B. & Dibben, C. (2014) arXiv.org (arXiv:1409.0217v2), [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

We describe results on the creation and use of synthetic data that were derived in the context of a project to make synthetic extracts available for users of the UK Longitudinal Studies. Contrary to the existing literature we show that there are circumstances when inferences can be made from fully synthetic data generated from fitted parameters without sampling from their posterior distributions (simple synthesis). The condition that allows this, which we describe as "common-sampling", is that the original sample and the synthetic data can be considered as sampled in the same way from their respective populations. New variance estimators for the analysis of synthetic data are derived when the common-sampling condition is met. It is shown that simple synthesis, with these estimators, provide better estimates than the methods suggested in the literature for fully synthetic data. The results are confirmed by simulations and are illustrated with an example from the Scottish Longitudinal Study.

Available online: arXiv.org
Download output document: Full paper (PDF 288KB)
Output from project: 2013_012

Assessing the potential impact of increased participation in higher education on mortality: evidence from 21 European populations

Kulhánova, I., Hoffman, R., Judge, K., Looman, C.W., Eikemo, T.A., Bopp, M., Deboosere, P., Leinsalu, M., Martikainen, P., Rychtariková, J., Wojtyniak, B., Menvielle, G. & Mackenbach, J.P. (2014) Social Science & Medicine, 117 (September), 142 - 149. 30 September 2014. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Although higher education has been associated with lower mortality rates in many studies, the effect of potential improvements in educational distribution on future mortality levels is unknown. We therefore estimated the impact of projected increases in higher education on mortality in European populations. We used mortality and population data according to educational level from 21 European populations and developed counterfactual scenarios. The first scenario represented the improvement in the future distribution of educational attainment as expected on the basis of an assumption of cohort replacement. We estimated the effect of this counterfactual scenario on mortality with a 10–15-year time horizon among men and women aged 30–79 years using a specially developed tool based on population attributable fractions (PAF). We compared this with a second, upward levelling scenario in which everyone has obtained tertiary education. The reduction of mortality in the cohort replacement scenario ranged from 1.9 to 10.1% for men and from 1.7 to 9.0% for women. The reduction of mortality in the upward levelling scenario ranged from 22.0 to 57.0% for men and from 9.6 to 50.0% for women. The cohort replacement scenario was estimated to achieve only part (4–25% (men) and 10–31% (women)) of the potential mortality decrease seen in the upward levelling scenario. We concluded that the effect of on-going improvements in educational attainment on average mortality in the population differs across Europe, and can be substantial. Further investments in education may have important positive side-effects on population health.

Available online: Social Science & Medicine,
Output from project: 2011_003

Population ageing and healthcare expenditure projections: new evidence from a time to death approach

Geue, C., Briggs, A., Lewsey, J. & Lorgelly, P. (2014) European Journal of Health Economics, 15 (8), 885 - 896 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background
Health care expenditure (HCE) is not distributed evenly over a person’s life course. How much is spent on the elderly is important as they are a population group that is increasing in size. However other factors, such as death-related costs that are known to be high, need be considered as well in any expenditure projections and budget planning decisions.

Objective
This article analyses, for the first time in Scotland, how expenditure projections for acute inpatient care are influenced when applying two different analytical approaches: (1) accounting for healthcare (HC) spending at the end of life and (2) accounting for demographic changes only. The association between socioeconomic status and HC utilisation and costs at the end of life is also estimated.

Methods
A representative, longitudinal data set is used. Survival analysis is employed to allow inclusion of surviving sample members. Cost estimates are derived from a two-part regression model. Future population estimates were obtained for both methods and multiplied separately by cost estimates.

Results
Time to death (TTD), age at death and the interaction between these two have a significant effect on HC costs. As individuals approach death, those living in more deprived areas are less likely to be hospitalised than those individuals living in the more affluent areas, although this does not translate into incurring statistically significant higher costs. Projected HCE for acute inpatient care for the year 2028 was approximately 7 % higher under the demographic approach as compared to a TTD approach.

Conclusion
The analysis showed that if death is postponed into older ages, HCE (and HC budgets) would not increase to the same extent if these factors were ignored. Such factors would be ignored if the population that is in their last year(s) of life were not taken into consideration when obtaining cost estimates.

Available online: European Journal of Health Economics,
Output from project: 2009_011

A Longitudinal Study of Migration Propensities for Mixed-Ethnic Unions in England and Wales

Feng, Z., van Ham, M., Boyle, P. & Raab, G. (2014) Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 40 (3), 384-403. 4 March 2014. ISSN: 1369-183X [SLS][ONS LS]

Other information:
SLS project page
ONS LS project page

Abstract:

Most studies investigating residential segregation of ethnic minorities ignore the fact that the majority of adults live in couples. In recent years there has been a growth in the number of mixed-ethnic unions that involve a minority member and a white member. To our knowledge, hardly any research has been undertaken to explicitly examine whether the ethnic mix within households has an impact on the residential mobility of households in terms of the ethnic mix of destination neighbourhoods. Our study addresses this research gap and examines the tendencies of mobility among mixed- ethnic unions in comparison with their co-ethnic peers. We used data from the Longitudinal Study for England and Wales. Our statistical analysis supports the spatial assimilation theory; ethnic minorities move towards less deprived areas and to a lesser extent also towards less ethnically concentrated areas. However, the types of destination neighbourhood of minority people living in mixed-ethnic unions varied greatly with the ethnicity of the ethnic minority partner.

Available online: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,
Output from project: 2007_016 (SLS), 30092 (ONS LS)

Educational Inequalities in Three Smoking-Related Causes of Death in 18 European Populations

Kulik, M.C., Menvielle, G., Eikemo, T.A., Bopp, M., Jasilionis, D., Kulhánová, I., Leinsalu, M., Martikainen, P., Östergren, O. & Mackenbach, J.P. (2013) Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16 (5), 507 - 518. 9 November 2013. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Introduction: Smoking is an important determinant of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in many countries. As the smoking epidemic progresses, updates on the development of mortality inequalities attributable to smoking are needed. We provide estimates of relative and absolute educational inequalities in mortality from lung cancer, aerodigestive cancers, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)/asthma in Europe and assess the contribution of these smoking-related diseases to inequalities in all-cause mortality.

Methods: We use data from 18 European populations covering the time period 1998–2007. We present age-adjusted mortality rates, relative indices of inequality, and slope indices of inequality. We also calculate the contribution of inequalities in smoking-related mortality to inequalities in overall mortality.

Results: Among men, relative inequalities in mortality from the 3 smoking-related causes of death combined are largest in the Czech Republic and Hungary and smallest in Spain, Sweden, and Denmark. Among women, these inequalities are largest in Scotland and Norway and smallest in Italy and Spain. They are often larger among men and tend to be larger for COPD/asthma than for lung and aerodigestive cancers. Relative inequalities in mortality from these conditions are often larger in younger age groups, particularly among women, suggesting a possible further widening of inequalities in mortality in the coming decades. The combined contribution of these diseases to inequality in all-cause mortality varies between 13% and 32% among men and between −5% and 30% among women.

Conclusion: Our results underline the continuing need for tobacco control policies, which take into account socioeconomic position.

Available online: Nicotine & Tobacco Research,
Output from project: 2011_003

Smoking and the potential for reduction of inequalities in mortality in Europe

Kulik, M.C., Hoffmann, R., Judge, K., Looman, C., Menvielle, G., Kulhánová, I., Toch, M., Östergren, O., Martikainen, P., Borrell, C., Rodríguez-Sanz, M., Bopp, M., Leinsalu, M., Jasilionis, D., Eikemo, T.A. & Mackenbach, J.P. (2013) European Journal of Epidemiology, 28 (12), 959 - 971 [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Socioeconomic inequalities in health and mortality remain a widely recognized problem. Countries with smaller inequalities in smoking have smaller inequalities in mortality, and smoking plays an important part in the explanation of inequalities in some countries. We identify the potential for reducing inequalities in all-cause and smoking-related mortality in 19 European populations, by applying different scenarios of smoking exposure. Smoking prevalence information and mortality data come from 19 European populations. Prevalence rates are mostly taken from National Health Surveys conducted around the year 2000. Mortality rates are based on country-specific longitudinal or cross-sectional datasets. Relative risks come from the Cancer Prevention Study II. Besides all-cause mortality we analyze several smoking-related cancers and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/asthma. We use a newly-developed tool to quantify the changes in population health potentially resulting from modifying the population distribution of exposure to smoking. This tool is based on the epidemiological measure of the population attributable fraction, and estimates the impact of scenario-based distributions of smoking on educational inequalities in mortality. The potential reduction of relative inequality in all-cause mortality between those with high and low education amounts up to 26 % for men and 32 % for women. More than half of the relative inequality may be reduced for some causes of death, often in countries of Northern Europe and in Britain. Patterns of potential reduction in inequality differ by country or region and sex, suggesting that the priority given to smoking as an entry-point for tackling health inequalities should differ between countries.

Available online: European Journal of Epidemiology,
Output from project: 2011_003

Population ageing in Scotland: Time for a re-think?

Spijker, J. & MacInnes, J. (2013) Scottish Affairs, 85 (autumn 2013), 53 - 74 [SLS]

Available online: Scottish Affairs,
Output from project: 2013_003

Population ageing: the timebomb that isn’t?

Spijker, J. & MacInnes, J. (2013) BMJ, 347 (6598), [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

Population ageing is a concern in all developed countries. For the first time, there are now more people over the age of 65 in the United Kingdom than there are children under 15 years. Over the past century, the proportion of over 65s has grown from about one in 20 to around one in six. Although declining birth rates and infant mortality formed the basis for this growth from the end of the 19th century until the second world war, since the 1970s increasing life expectancy has been an additional driving force. This population ageing has worried policy makers because for every worker paying tax and national insurance there are more older citizens, who make greater demands on social insurance, health, and welfare systems and have increasing morbidity and disability.

The standard indicator of population ageing is the old age dependency ratio. It takes the number of people who have reached the state pension age and divides it by the number of working age (16-64 years) adults in order to estimate the proportion of older people relative to those who pay for them. Although the phased raising of the state pension age (from 65 for men and 60 for women) to 68 for both sexes, which will keep 3.5 million people in the working age, will initially cause the ratio to decline from today’s 31% in England and Wales, by 2035 it will have risen to 37%.

However, the old age dependency ratio is a poor measure of the burden of an ageing population. It counts neither the number of dependent older people nor the number who sustain them. It merely takes a cut-off point (the state pension age) and assigns adults to the two sides of the ratio accordingly. This might be a useful rule of thumb if the relative size of these two age groups tracked the volume of old age dependency, but it does not. We propose an alternative measure that gives a more accurate and very different picture and consider the implications of our results for health policy.

Available online: BMJ,
Output from project: 2013_003

How spatial segregation changes over time: sorting out the sorting processes

Bailey, N. (2012) Environment and Planning A, 44 (3), 705-722. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Although there is strong evidence that segregation on socioeconomic lines has risen in many countries over the last few decades, comparatively little is known about the processes by which this happens. While it is often assumed that selective migration is the dominant process, this has rarely been demonstrated. This paper proposes a more comprehensive framework to analyse processes driving changes in segregation—a ‘neighbourhood accounts’ framework. The framework is tested using data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study for 1991 – 2001, focusing on the working-age population. Contrary to what many have assumed, selective migration is shown to have only a very weak impact on changes in spatial segregation, and is certainly not the dominant factor—at least in this particular context. The effects of ageing or cohort replacement and of uneven rates of status change or social mobility appear much more important. This raises important issues for policies to tackle segregation.

Available online: Environment and Planning A,
Output from project: 2007_015

Socio-demographic and health characteristics of individuals left behind in deprived and declining areas in Scotland

Brown D., O'Reilly D., Gayle V., Macintyre S., Benzeval M., & Leyland A.H. (2012) Health & Place, 18 (2), 440-444. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Deprived and declining areas in Scotland have poorer health than other areas in the rest of Scotland. Using data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, this paper examines whether differential migration over a one year period can explain these differences. Compared with migrants to and from deprived and declining areas, stable residents in those areas were generally older, less well educated and less affluent. Continued disproportionate loss of more affluent and better educated individuals could result in deprived and declining areas becoming even more deprived over time. Migrants appeared to be in better health; however, this finding was reversed on adjustment for age. It may be that while the relationship between migration and socio-economic status is immediately apparent, the relationship between migration and health could take longer to develop.

Available online: Health & Place,
Output from project: 2009_009

Sectarianism: Myth or Social Reality? Inter-sectarian partnerships in Scotland, evidence from the Scottish Longitudinal Study

Raab, G. & Holligan, C. (2012) Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35 (11), 1934-1954. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This article explores the contested issue of whether sectarianism divides Catholics and Protestants in Scotland. The conclusions are based on an analysis of 111,627 couples from the 2001 Census. The proportions with no religious upbringing and currently belonging to no religion decrease steeply with year of birth for the members of couples. This is largely due to a decline in the Protestant group, while the proportion of Catholics remains fairly stable with year of birth. For the oldest cohort those with a Catholic upbringing are disadvantaged compared to Protestants, in terms of educational qualifications and membership of the professional classes, but this difference has eroded so that there are few differences at the youngest ages. Those with no religious upbringing are disadvantaged on these measures at all ages. Catholics are more likely than Protestants to form couples outside their religious group, and this is not simply a consequence of their minority status, which would restrict the number of available partners. The trend towards secularism could be influenced by inter-sectarian coupling because those in mixed relationships are less likely to practise their religion of upbringing. The high proportion of inter-sectarian marriages may give rise to many Protestants in Scotland having practising Catholics among their extended families, and this should contribute to undermining sectarian divisions.

Available online: Ethnic and Racial Studies,
Output from project: 2007_008

Migration, occupational mobility, and regional escalators in Scotland

van Ham, M., Findlay, A., Manley, D. & Feijten, P. (2012) Urban Studies Research, 2012 (Article ID 827171), 15 pages. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This paper seeks to unpick the complex relationship between an individual’s migration behaviour, their place of residence, and their occupational performance in the Scottish labour market between 1991 and 2001. We investigate whether Edinburgh has emerged as an occupational escalator region and whether individuals moving there experience more rapid upward occupational mobility than those living and moving elsewhere. Using country of birth, we also control for an individual’s propensity to make long distance moves during earlier periods of their life course. Using data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, linking 1991 and 2001 individual census records, and logistic regressions, we show that those who migrate over long distances within or to Scotland are most likely to achieve upward occupational mobility. We also found that Edinburgh is by far the most important regional escalator in Scotland; those moving to Edinburgh are the most likely to experience upward occupational mobility from low to high occupational status jobs. This is an important finding as most of the literature on escalator regions focuses on international mega cities.

Available online: Urban Studies Research,
Output from project: 2007_005

Are mixed unions more likely to dissolve than co-ethnic unions? New evidence from Britain

Feng Z., Boyle, P., van Ham, M. & Raab, G. (2012) European Journal of Population, 28 (2), 159-176. [SLS][ONS LS]

Other information:
SLS project page
ONS LS project page

Abstract:

The increasing proportion of ethnic minorities in Britain has been paralleled by an increase in the occurrence of mixed-ethnic marriages between one White partner and an ethnic minority partner. Such marriages are thought to be at higher risk of divorce, but empirical studies so far have been inconclusive. This paper uses the Office for National Statistics longitudinal study for England and Wales to investigate whether mixed-ethnic unions are more likely to end in divorce than co-ethnic unions. We followed married couples in 1991–2001 and examined their risks of divorce. We found evidence that mixed-ethnic unions have a higher risk of dissolution than co-ethnic unions. However, after controlling for partners’ characteristics, most importantly the younger ages of people in mixed-ethnic unions, the risk of divorce for mixed-ethnic unions was no longer elevated, but lay close to the higher risk found for the two constituent co-ethnic unions.

Available online: European Journal of Population,
Output from project: 2007_016 (SLS), 30092 (ONS LS)

Does widowhood increase mortality risk? Comparing different causes of spousal death to test for selection effects

Boyle, P., Feng, Z. & Raab, G. (2011) Epidemiology, 22, 1-5. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background: We consider whether widowhood increases mortality risk. Although commonly observed, this “widowhood effect” could be due to selection effects, as married couples share various characteristics related to the risk of death. We therefore consider the widowhood effect by various causes of spousal death; some causes of death are correlated with shared characteristics in couples, while others are not.

Methods: Using data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study, we compare outcomes for men and women by the causes of death of their spouse, controlling for a range of individual- and household-level characteristics.

Results: The widowhood effect in these data is greater than has been found in other recent studies, with adjusted hazard ratios of 1.40 (95% confidence interval = 1.33–1.47) for men and 1.36 (1.30–1.44) for women. The risk is highest shortly after widowhood, but remains raised for at least 10 years. There was little evidence that these hazard ratios differed by any classification of the cause of death of the spouse, but interactions were found for those with pre-existing illness or other risk factors. The hazard ratios for widowhood were lower for persons with preexisting risks.

Conclusions: Our analysis of the widowhood effect uses 3 methods of classifying the causes of spousal death in an attempt to control for potential selection effects. Our results are highly consistent and suggest that this is a causal effect, rather than a result of selection.

Available online: Epidemiology,
Output from project: 2008_006

Is there a ‘Scottish effect’ for mortality? Prospective observational study of census linkage studies

Popham, F., & Boyle, P.J. (2011) Journal of Public Health, 33 (3), 453-458. [SLS][ONS LS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Background Scotland's mortality rate is higher than England and Wales’ and this difference cannot be explained by differences in area-level socio-economic deprivation. However, studies of this ‘Scottish effect' have not adjusted for individual-level measures of socio-economic position nor accounted for country of birth; important as Scottish born living in England and Wales also have high mortality risk.

Methods Data sets (1991–2001 and 2001–2007) were obtained from the Scottish Longitudinal Study and the Office for National Statistics England and Wales Longitudinal Study that both link census records to subsequent mortality. Analysis was limited to those aged 35–74 at baseline with people followed to emigration, death or end of follow-up.

Results Those born in Scotland living in either England and Wales or Scotland had a higher mortality rate than the English born living in England and Wales that was not fully attenuated by adjustment for car access and housing tenure.

Conclusion Adjusting for household-level differences in socio-economic deprivation does not fully explain the Scottish excess mortality that is seen for those born in Scotland whether living in England and Wales or Scotland. Taking a life course approach may reveal the cause of the ‘Scottish effect’.


SLS project page
ONS LS project page

Available online: Journal of Public Health,
Output from project: 2009_004 (SLS), 30117 (ONS LS)

Selective internal migration. Does it explain Glasgow’s worsening mortality record?

Popham, F., Boyle, P., O'Reilly, D. & Leyland, A.H. (2011) Health & Place, 17 (6), 1212-1217. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

The mortality difference between Glasgow and the rest of Scotland has been increasing and mortality rates are higher than Glasgow's excess deprivation would suggest. One plausible explanation for this excess is selective migration. A sample of 137,073 individuals aged 15 to 64 in 1991 from the Scottish Longitudinal Study was used to test this explanation. Three geographic areas were compared: Glasgow; Aberdeen, Dundee and Edinburgh cities combined and the rest of Scotland. The impact of selective migration was assessed by calculating age and sex standardised mortality rates for 2001/03 by residence in 2001 and by residence in 1991. Glasgow experienced the greatest loss of population (−7.1%) between 1991 and 2001 but this was not strongly related to deprivation. It had the highest mortality at baseline and the difference between it and the other areas increased over the ten years. This pattern was not significantly affected by calculating death rates according to area of residence at 1991 or in 2001. Our results suggest that the increasing difference in mortality rates between Glasgow and the rest of Scotland over this period was probably not caused by selective migration.

Available online: Health & Place,
Output from project: 2008_010

To what extent can deprivation inequalities in mortality and heart disease incidence amongst the working aged in Scotland be explained by smoking? Relative and absolute approaches

Popham, F. (2011) Health & Place, 17 (5), 1132-1136. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Smoking is important for both population health and inequalities in health. There is a growing recognition that its impact on inequalities can be assessed both by standardising smoking rates across socio-economic groups and by assessing the effect of reducing the prevalence of smoking in all groups, so-called relative and absolute approaches. While national level studies (such as census-linkage studies) give vital information on the socio-economic gradient in health they often lack smoking data. Here, small area smoking estimates are linked to a national level longitudinal study to overcome this problem. Results confirm that in relative and especially absolute terms smoking plays an important role in inequalities.

Available online: Health & Place,
Output from project: 2009_001

Increased Mortality in Parents Bereaved in the First Year of Their Child’s Life

Harper, M., O'Connor, R.C. & O'Carroll, R.E. (2011) British Medical Journal (Supportive and Palliative Care), 1, 306-309. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Objective To identify the relative risk (RR) of mortality in bereaved parents compared with non-bereaved counterparts.

Design Retrospective data linkage study.

Setting United Kingdom, 1971–2006.

Participants A random sample from death registrations (5%) of parents who had a live birth where the infant lived beyond its first year of life (non-bereaved parents) and parents who had experienced a stillbirth or the death of a child in its first year of life (bereaved parents) between 1971 and 2006.

Main outcome measures Death or widowhood of the parent.

Results Bereaved parents in Scotland (n=738) were more than twice as likely to die in the first 15 years after their child's death than non-bereaved parents (n=50 132), p<0.005. Bereaved mothers in England and Wales (n=481) were more than four times as likely to die in the first 15 years after their child's birth than non-bereaved parents (n=30 956), p<0.001. The mortality risk for bereaved mothers compared with non-bereaved mothers, followed up for 25 years after death, was 1.5 (bereaved n=745, non-bereaved n=36 434), p<0.005. When followed up for 35 years, the risk of mortality for bereaved mothers (n=1120) was 1.2 times that of non-bereaved mothers (n=36 062), p<0.005.

Conclusions Bereaved parents who experience stillbirth or infant death have markedly increased mortality compared with non-bereaved parents, up to 25 years (mean) after the death of their child. However, the RR reduces over time.

Available online: British Medical Journal (Supportive and Palliative Care),
Output from project: 2008_003

The Scottish excess in mortality compared to the English and Welsh: is it a country of residence or country of birth excess?

Boyle, P.J., Popham, F. & Norman, P. (2010) Health & Place, 16 (4), 759-762. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Scotland has a higher mortality rate than England and Wales, which is only partially explained by differences in socio-economic deprivation. Within Scotland those born in England and Wales have a lower mortality rate than the Scottish born. Within England and Wales, Scottish born immigrants have a higher mortality rate than those born in England and Wales. These results raise the question of whether the greater Scottish mortality is a country of birth rather than a country of residence excess. Our analysis, around the 2001 Census, suggests that country of birth is more important than country of residence, indicating that early life factors may be important for the Scottish excess.

Available online: Health & Place,
Output from project: 2009_004

The effect of neighbourhood housing tenure mix on labour market outcomes: a longitudinal investigation of neighbourhood effects

van Ham, M. & Manley, D. (2010) Journal of Economic Geography, 10 (2), 257-282. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

This article investigates the effect of different levels of neighbourhood housing tenure mix and deprivation on transitions from unemployment to employment and the probability of staying in employment for those with a job. We used multiple regression models and unique individual level data from the Scottish Longitudinal Study. We found that high correlations between the percentage of social renting in a neighbourhood and labour market outcomes disappeared when controlling for neighbourhood deprivation, individual level education and tenure. The results show that living in a deprived neighbourhood is negatively correlated with labour market performance, but predominantly for homeowners and not for social renters. We suggest that selection effects and not causation are behind the neighbourhood effects found.

Available online: Journal of Economic Geography,
Output from project: 2007_006

Self-rated health and mortality in the UK: results from the first comparative analysis of the England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland Longitudinal Studies

Young, H., Grundy, E., O'Reilly, D. & Boyle, P. (2010) Population Trends, 139 (Spring), 11-36. [SLS][ONS LS][NILS]

Other information:
SLS project page
ONS LS project page
NILS project page

Abstract:

Previous studies have shown that self-reported health indicators are predictive of subsequent mortaity, but that this association varies between populations and population sub-groups. For example, self-reported health is less predictive of mortality at older ages, has a stronger association with mortality for men than for women and is more predictive of mortality for those of lower than those of higher socio-economic status, particularly among middle aged working adults.

This article explores this association using individual level, rather than ecological, data to see whether there are differences between the constituent countries of the UK in the relationship between self-reported health and subsequent mortality, and to investigate socio-economic inequalities in mortality more generally. Data are used from the three Census based longitudinal studies now available for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Available online: Population Trends,
Download output document: Full Paper (PDF 408KB)
Output from project: 2008_009 (SLS), 30086 (ONS LS), 028 (NILS)

Cohort Profile: The Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS)

Boyle, P., Feijten, P., Feng, Z., Hattersley, L., Huang, Z., Nolan, J. & Raab, G. (2009) International Journal of Epidemiology, 38 (2), 385-392. [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

This article describes the establishment of the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS). The study is similar in design to the Office for National Statistics (ONS) Longitudinal Study (LS), which has been running for over 30 years and the Northern Ireland Longitudinal Study (NILS), which has been established only recently. However, the SLS differs from the LS and NILS is a number of ways. Subsequently, we describe the details of the SLS, paying particularly attention to how it compares with the LS upon which is was originally based. ...

Available online: International Journal of Epidemiology,

Unemployment, mortality and the problem of health-related selection: Evidence from the Scottish and England & Wales (ONS) Longitudinal Studies

Clemens, T., Boyle, P. & Popham, F. (2009) Health Statistics Quarterly, 43, 7-13. Office for National Statistics. [SLS][ONS LS]

Other information:
Extract:

The potential for unemployment to negatively affect an individual’s health status has been the focus of much research. Associations between a spectrum of health outcomes and unemployment have been empirically borne out in the literature including mental health, substance use and teenage pregnancy, suicidal behaviours and limiting long-term illness (LLTI). In addition to these outcomes much work has sought to investigate associations between unemployment and mortality.

While many of these studies report statistically strong associations between unemployment and poor health, establishing this as a causal relationship poses a greater challenge as they rely on observational rather than experimental studies. ...

Available online: Health Statistics Quarterly,
Download output document: Full Paper (PDF 116KB)
Output from project: 2008_005

The Creation of “Consistent Areas Through Time” (CATTs) in Scotland, 1981-2001

Exeter, D.J., Boyle, P., Feng, Z., Flowerdew, R. & Schierloh, N. (2005) Population Trends, 119 (Spring 2005), 28-36. Office for National Statistics. [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

...[A] number of methods exist that enable two or more geographies to be combined into a common geography. Most approaches use an areal interpolation process that involves the proportional redistribution of information from the source geographies to the target geography, based on a pre-defined weighting scheme. Necessarily, however, these techniques introduce error, which varies depending on the procedure that is used.

Here we present an alternative approach, which uses 1981 EDs in Scotland as the base geography from which ‘Consistent Areas Through Timeʼ (CATTs) can be derived. It is possible to extract small area census data outputs from 1981, 1991 and 2001 for these areas without the need for areal interpolation methods. The method presented here is only possible because the General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) has endeavoured to maintain comparability between census areas since 1981. For the first time in Scotland, therefore, CATTs are available which allow for the reliable analysis of changing demographic, social and economic circumstances at the local level. ...

Available online: Population Trends,
Download output document: Full Issue (PDF 1.4MB)

Shrinking areas and mortality: an artefact of deprivation effects?

Exeter, D.J., Feng, Z., Flowerdew, R. & Boyle, P. (2005) Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, 924-926. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

There is evidence that mortality rates are highest in areas that are experiencing population decline, and researchers have recommended that this should be accounted for in health resource allocation. This research finds a significant negative association between population change and mortality for small areas in Scotland, which remains when low social class is accounted for. However, this relation disappears when the area deprivation is accounted for. It is suggested that it is more important to account for deprivation than population change in health resource allocation.

Available online: Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health,

Population geography: migration and inequalities in mortality and morbidity

Boyle, P. (2004) Progress in Human Geography, 28, 767-776. [SLS]

Other information:
Extract:

This is my third, and final, Progress in Human Geography review paper for population geography where I turn to mortality – the third of the core areas of the subdiscipline. There has, it seems to me, been a gradual decline in interest among population geographers in the geography of mortality. This is not to ignore some important and interesting mortality research conducted by population geographers but it is evident that, compared to migration research, interest in mortality has diminished. Thus, in perusing the back issues of the International Journal of Population Geography (now Population, Space and Place), I find only seven articles which focus explicitly on mortality in the last nine years (Garrett and Reid,1995; Root,1999; Gupta and Baghel, 2000; Ramiro-Fariñas and Sanz-Gimeno, 2000; Congdon et al., 2001; Reher, 2001; Mooney, 2002) and most of these are historical or based in the developing world. This is despite the fact that there is a number of contemporary mortality-based research questions that should fall much more squarely within the interests of population geographers. ...

Available online: Progress in Human Geography,

Guest editorial: the 2001 UK census: remarkable resource or bygone legacy of the ‘pencil and paper era’?

Boyle, P. & Dorling, D. (2004) Area, 36 (2), 101-110. 22 June 2004. [SLS][ONS LS][NILS]

Other information:
Abstract:

National censuses are expensive. They are conducted infrequently. They collect information that some feel infringes their human rights, and people are required by law to complete them. The outputs are not perfect, and in some situations may be misleading. Some suggest that censuses hark back to a period when regularly collected administrative data were not available. These are some of the views held about national censuses. Why, then, would others argue that they are an essential resource? In this paper, we consider some of the pros and cons of conducting national censuses, before introducing a series of papers that draw on early data available from the 2001 UK census. We argue that these papers, and the wealth of research that will be conducted in the future with 2001 census data, make a strong case for supporting the compulsory collection of personal information about the ‘entire’ population every ten years.

Available online: Area,

The role of population change in widening the mortality gap in Scotland

Boyle, P., Exeter, D. & Flowerdew, R. (2004) Area, 36 (2), 164-173. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

The social gradient in health and mortality has been acknowledged for some time and, more recently, there is some evidence that the gap between the richer and poorer is widening in Britain. Other studies have also shown that health and mortality outcomes are worse in places that are experiencing population decline and better in places that are growing. This analysis examines, first, whether there is a mortality gap between the least and most deprived people in Scotland, second, whether this gap has widened since the 1980s and, third, whether the gap can be explained by patterns of population change. Our results demonstrate that the widening mortality gap in Scotland cannot be explained simply as an artefact of population change, even though it is widening most in those places that are experiencing population decline. This type of research is made possible by the reliable denominator population information provided in the 1981 and 2001 censuses.

Available online: Area,

Scotland’s demographic regime: Population and the politics of devolution

Graham, E. & Boyle, P. (2003) Scottish Geographical Journal, 119 (4), 361-382. [SLS]

Other information:
Abstract:

Scotland, with just over 5 million inhabitants, is a small country relative to most of its neighbours in Europe, including England. Under the recently (re)established Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, devolved responsibilities have provided a new context within which the characteristics of its demographic regime have come to be seen as problematic. In this paper we review the empirical evidence underpinning political perceptions of a population ‘crisis’ in Scotland and argue that spatial comparisons have been particularly influential in this politicisation of population. We then examine the dimensions of the population debate through the voices of politicians and the media. We conclude with a brief consideration of the relationships between population and devolved politics, suggesting a direction for policy‐relevant research to which population geographers could make a major contribution.

Available online: Scottish Geographical Journal,

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